Copyright Act: Federal Protections and Your Rights

The Copyright Act protects original works of authorship including literary works, music, dramatic performances, choreography, pictures, graphics, sculptures, motion pictures, and sound recordings. Courts have consistently interpreted the Copyright Act broadly to encompass new forms of creative expression, including digital content and software. Software copyright protection extends to source code, object code, and the structure and organization of programs. The Copyright Act requires that protected works demonstrate sufficient originality and creative expression, distinguishing them from purely mechanical or routine compilations. New York federal courts regularly address disputes involving the scope of protection under the Copyright Act for various creative industries.

Under the Copyright Act, works created after January 1, 1978, receive protection for the author's life plus seventy years, or for works made for hire, ninety-five years from publication or one hundred twenty years from creation, whichever is shorter. The Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act extended these periods significantly, ensuring that major creative works remain protected well into the twenty-first century. For works created before 1978, the Copyright Act provides different term calculations based on publication date and registration status. These duration rules apply uniformly across all states, including New York, as copyright protection is exclusively federal. Understanding these timeframes is critical for determining when works enter the public domain or when licensing agreements should expire.

To establish infringement under the Copyright Act, a copyright owner must prove ownership of a valid copyright and demonstrate that the defendant copied protected expression rather than merely the underlying ideas or facts. Courts apply a two-part test: first, establishing that the plaintiff owns a valid copyright in the work, and second, showing that the defendant's work is substantially similar to the plaintiff's protected expression. The Copyright Act does not protect ideas, concepts, procedures, or systems, only the specific creative expression used to convey them. New York federal courts have addressed numerous cases involving the Copyright Act's application to literary works, films, music, and digital content. Actual copying can be proven through direct evidence or circumstantial evidence demonstrating access and substantial similarity.

The Copyright Act allows copyright owners to elect statutory damages instead of proving actual damages, providing a powerful enforcement tool when damages are difficult to calculate. Statutory damages under the Copyright Act range from 750 dollars to 30,000 dollars per work infringed, or up to 150,000 dollars per work for willful infringement, making enforcement economically viable even for smaller copyright violations. Courts may reduce statutory damages to 200 dollars per work for innocent infringers who were unaware of the infringement. The Copyright Act also provides for recovery of attorney's fees and costs in successful litigation, incentivizing copyright owners to pursue enforcement. Copyright laws in New York are enforced through federal district courts, which have exclusive jurisdiction over Copyright Act claims.

The Copyright Act permits fair use through a four-factor analysis: the purpose and character of the use, the nature of the copyrighted work, the amount and substantiality of the portion used, and the effect of the use on the market value of the original work. Transformative uses that add new meaning or message to the original work are more likely to qualify as fair use under the Copyright Act. Courts have found that parody, criticism, and educational uses may constitute fair use, though each case depends on its specific facts. The Copyright Act does not provide a bright-line rule for fair use, requiring courts to balance the four factors in light of the purposes of copyright law. New York courts have addressed fair use claims in cases involving literary quotations, film clips, music sampling, and digital content.

The Copyright Act permits copyright owners to license their works to others, allowing controlled exploitation while maintaining ownership rights. Licensing agreements under the Copyright Act may grant exclusive or non-exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, display, or perform copyrighted works. The Copyright Act recognizes collective licensing organizations that manage rights on behalf of multiple copyright owners, simplifying the licensing process for users. Digital licensing under the Copyright Act has become increasingly important as creators distribute works through online platforms and streaming services. Proper licensing agreements protect both copyright owners and licensees by clearly defining permitted uses and compensation terms.

The Copyright Act, through the Digital Millennium Copyright Act provisions, protects technological measures that copyright owners use to control access to and copying of their works. Anti-circumvention protections under the Copyright Act apply even when circumvention would otherwise constitute fair use, creating tensions between copyright protection and user rights. The Copyright Act provides exceptions for certain circumvention activities, including security research, reverse engineering for interoperability, and non-commercial archival preservation. New York courts have addressed cases involving the Copyright Act's technological protection provisions in disputes over software licensing, streaming services, and digital media. These provisions represent a significant expansion of copyright protection beyond the traditional scope of the Copyright Act.